DEFINITION OF TERMS
- Filler-a temporary plant usually small and early bearing one which planted in between plants.
- Planting board- a device used in lay-outing the area for the crops.
- Lay-outing-locating the position of plant in the orchard.
- Staking-the placing of the pole to mark the position of the plant to be set.
- Orchard-an establishment where fruit bearing crops are grown.
- Irrigation- the application of water to the soil by any other means than rainfall.
Information Sheet 1.1
INTERPRET FARM PLANS AND LAYOUTS
The Farming for the Future‘ (FFTF) program can help you to plan the best farm layout. It is an initiative of NSW Government agencies focusing on whole farm planning. A whole farm plan considers the farm‘s physical, financial, and human/personal resources for both now and the future.
Site Assessment
An on-site assessment of a farm is necessary so that a map can be drawn according to the property‘s topography, boundaries, soil, water resources, and so on, and a farm business plan can be formulated.
Government Plans
Acquaint yourself with the Regional Environmental Plans (REPs), Local Environmental Plans (LEPs), and Development Control Plans (DCPs) and their short and long-term effects on your proposed or existing farm enterprise. This will help to reduce unforeseen risks and enhance your farm business. Council‘s building approval or development consent (DAs) may be needed for siting greenhouses, siting and constructing dams, or erecting hail and windbreak netting. Council approval to clear land or a no burning of crop debris or waste materials on farm‘ may apply. Consent will be required if odor or noise is a nuisance likely to be generated from the development.
DESIRABLE LAYOUT OF VEGETABLE FARM
Site Selection
Site selection is important. Slopes to the north east are preferred for maximum sunlight, warmth, and protection from wind. Slopes are prone to erosion and need to be farmed with care. To prevent soil erosion and the silting of waterways, do not grow vegetables on slopes greater than seven degrees (7°). |
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Buffer Zones
Buffer zones are areas of vegetated land need to be established or left in place to protect sensitive environmental areas and provide a habitat/sanctuary for wildlife. They should be located between the area of farm activity and any areas of possible water quality impairment or contamination. Water environs or features to be protected are:
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Groundwater contamination
Check for groundwater contamination. Any contamination of the groundwater by pollutants can affect your farm business operations. Although well-drained soils are preferred for growing vegetables, there is a greater risk that pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer can leach through them and contaminate groundwater resources. |
Windbreaks Wind protection and screening of the whole farm and of individual large paddocks is recommended. Screening of the property, especially with trees, prevents many complaints about farm activities. Windbreaks also prevent drift and movement of sprays, dust, pests, and noise to adjoining areas. |
Soil management You need to plan your soil management strategies. It is important to provide good drainage and install grassed drainage/ waterways in conjunction with fields designed to prevent erosion from irrigation and heavy rain. To prevent soil erosion on a 3° slope on Hawkesbury sandstone derived soils (sandy clay loam), you will need contour banks at intervals of 50 m. The Soil and Vegetation Management Directorate of DLWC offers expert advice in this area. |
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Water management Water management strategies require pre-cropping assessment. Water supplies must be able to meet the needs of crops in periods of drought when water demand is the highest. Inadequately designed water supplies will limit crop production and profitability. Water quality is also important. Poor water quality reduces the growth and yield of crops. Using poor quality water can damage both the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Avoid high-volume sprinkler and flood irrigation in areas of high soil and/or water salinity or where the water table is rising. In such situations use low volume mini sprinklers or drip irrigation and irrigate at night. |
ORCHARD PLANTING AND PLANTING DESIGNS
Information sheet 1.2
LAYOUTING
Layout of an orchard is very important. Layout means fixing the position of trees, roads, buildings, etc. in an orchard being planned. There are various systems of layout in an orchard. Systems of layout refer to the design of planting the trees. It is desirable to have the trees planted in a systematic way because: (1) orchard operations like intercultural and irrigation are carried out easily; (2) it makes possible the distribution of areas equally for each tree; (3) it results in maximum utilization of an area according to different kinds of trees; and (4) it makes supervision more easy and effective.
Systems of Planting
There are five systems of planting fruit trees. In all these systems, trees are planted in rows. The distance between row to row and plant to plant varies with the system, type of fruit trees and their varieties. Trees with bigger canopy require greater distance between them and vice versa.
A. Square system
In square system, the trees are planted in four corners of a square keeping the same distance between rows and from plant to plant in the same row. This is the simplest and easiest system of plantation.
Advantages
B. Rectangular system
In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in a square system except that the distance between rows will be more than the distance between plants in the same row. Four adjacent trees in this system make a rectangular design.
Advantages
Disadvantages
C. Quincunx or Diagonal system
Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square system except for the addition of a tree in the center of each square. In this system, the number of trees planted in the same area is almost double. But the distance between the trees is much reduced. For this reason, trees with shorter life space are chosen for the center. By the time the main trees grow into full size, the central trees will have finished their life cycle. The central trees are known as filler crop and the others as main crop. If the filler crop hinders seriously the growth of main trees, it should be removed Papaya, Guava, Lime, plum and peaches are a few examples of filler crops in orchards with trees like mango jack and tamarind.
Advantages
Disadvantages
D. Hexagonal system
In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Six such triangles are joined together to form a hexagon. Six trees are positioned at the corners of this hexagon with a seventh in the center all arranged in the three rows. However the distance between tree to tree in six directions from the central tree remains the same.
Advantages
E. Contour system
Contour is an imaginary line connecting all points of equal elevation across a slope. In a hilly area, a lot of depressions, ridges, furrows, and place surface are found. But when planting is done, a line is made by connecting all the points of the same elevation across the slope from a base line. This spacing is maintained on this row. However, row to row distance will not be the same since the degree of slope varies from spot to spot. Points of equal elevation at a distance equal to plant to plant spacing are market with the help of Dumpy level or other suitable instruments. In these system contour lines themselves become the rows and are marked at the row to row distance. However it is not possible to maintain the row to row distance strictly all long the rows. Whenever distance between adjacent contour line is almost double, another contour is fitted in that space.
Advantages
Procedure for layout
In the layout procedures for different system, a few common steps can be identified.
1. Measure the land.
2. Decide the types of trees to be plated, planting distance and the system of plating.
3. Prepare a plan on the paper marking all details
Preparing a plan on paper is tedious and time consuming but the actual layout becomes easier.
A base line (parallel to any side of the plot or a contour line) is market always at the beginning of the layout and it forms a row of trees. Subsequent rows are marked parallel to this base line except in contour system. The position of the trees in each row is marked using the wooden pegs leaving a space equal to half the plant to plant distance on either side (boundary). Otherwise, the roots and canopy of the trees may spread beyond the boundary. Depending on the length and width of the land, plant to plant and row to row distances, boundary space may be reasonably adjusted. While preparing the blue print, all these factors are taken into consideration.
LAYOUTING
Layout of an orchard is very important. Layout means fixing the position of trees, roads, buildings, etc. in an orchard being planned. There are various systems of layout in an orchard. Systems of layout refer to the design of planting the trees. It is desirable to have the trees planted in a systematic way because: (1) orchard operations like intercultural and irrigation are carried out easily; (2) it makes possible the distribution of areas equally for each tree; (3) it results in maximum utilization of an area according to different kinds of trees; and (4) it makes supervision more easy and effective.
Systems of Planting
There are five systems of planting fruit trees. In all these systems, trees are planted in rows. The distance between row to row and plant to plant varies with the system, type of fruit trees and their varieties. Trees with bigger canopy require greater distance between them and vice versa.
A. Square system
In square system, the trees are planted in four corners of a square keeping the same distance between rows and from plant to plant in the same row. This is the simplest and easiest system of plantation.
Advantages
- Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight
- Operations like plowing, harrowing, cultivation, spraying, and harvesting becomes easy.
- Better supervision of the orchard is possible as one gets a view of the orchard from one end to the other.
- Comparatively less number of trees is accommodated in given area.
- Distance between plant to plant and row to row remains the same and, hence, certain amount of space in the middle of four trees is wasted.
B. Rectangular system
In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in a square system except that the distance between rows will be more than the distance between plants in the same row. Four adjacent trees in this system make a rectangular design.
Advantages
- Intercultural operations can be carried out easily.
- Irrigation channel can be made length and breadth wise.
- Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter spaces between rows.
- Better supervision is possible. 5. Intercropping is possible.
Disadvantages
- A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if intercropping is not practiced.
- Less number of trees are planted.
C. Quincunx or Diagonal system
Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square system except for the addition of a tree in the center of each square. In this system, the number of trees planted in the same area is almost double. But the distance between the trees is much reduced. For this reason, trees with shorter life space are chosen for the center. By the time the main trees grow into full size, the central trees will have finished their life cycle. The central trees are known as filler crop and the others as main crop. If the filler crop hinders seriously the growth of main trees, it should be removed Papaya, Guava, Lime, plum and peaches are a few examples of filler crops in orchards with trees like mango jack and tamarind.
Advantages
- Additional income can be earned from the filler crop till the main crop comes into bearing.
- Compared to square to square and rectangular systems, almost double the number of trees can be planted initially.
- Maximum utilization of the land is possible.
Disadvantages
- Skill is required to layout the orchard.
- Inter/filler crop can interfere with the growth of the main crop.
- Intercultural operations become difficult.
- Spacing of the main crop0 is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue after the growth of the main crop.
D. Hexagonal system
In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Six such triangles are joined together to form a hexagon. Six trees are positioned at the corners of this hexagon with a seventh in the center all arranged in the three rows. However the distance between tree to tree in six directions from the central tree remains the same.
Advantages
- Compared to square system 15% more trees can be planted.
- It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.
- Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.
- More income can be obtained.
- Intercultural operations become difficult.
- Skill is required to layout the orchard.
E. Contour system
Contour is an imaginary line connecting all points of equal elevation across a slope. In a hilly area, a lot of depressions, ridges, furrows, and place surface are found. But when planting is done, a line is made by connecting all the points of the same elevation across the slope from a base line. This spacing is maintained on this row. However, row to row distance will not be the same since the degree of slope varies from spot to spot. Points of equal elevation at a distance equal to plant to plant spacing are market with the help of Dumpy level or other suitable instruments. In these system contour lines themselves become the rows and are marked at the row to row distance. However it is not possible to maintain the row to row distance strictly all long the rows. Whenever distance between adjacent contour line is almost double, another contour is fitted in that space.
Advantages
- This system can be adopted in hilly regions and in leveled land.
- Contour system can control the soil erosion.
- It helps simultaneously in the conservation of water.
- Preservation of plant nutrients supplied by manures and fertilizers is possible.
- Contours from an easy path movements on the hill slopes are used for carrying out various orchard operations such as weeding, manuring, pruning, harvesting, disease and pest control.
- Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time consuming.
- Special skill is required to layout this system.
- Special instruments are required for making contour lines.
- The row to row distance will not be equal and adjustments may be required in the plant to plat distance.
- Rows are broken in to bits and pieces.
Procedure for layout
In the layout procedures for different system, a few common steps can be identified.
1. Measure the land.
2. Decide the types of trees to be plated, planting distance and the system of plating.
3. Prepare a plan on the paper marking all details
Preparing a plan on paper is tedious and time consuming but the actual layout becomes easier.
A base line (parallel to any side of the plot or a contour line) is market always at the beginning of the layout and it forms a row of trees. Subsequent rows are marked parallel to this base line except in contour system. The position of the trees in each row is marked using the wooden pegs leaving a space equal to half the plant to plant distance on either side (boundary). Otherwise, the roots and canopy of the trees may spread beyond the boundary. Depending on the length and width of the land, plant to plant and row to row distances, boundary space may be reasonably adjusted. While preparing the blue print, all these factors are taken into consideration.
Information Sheet 2.1
Irrigation System Plan and Design
Water required by crops is supplied by nature in the form of precipitation, but when it becomes scarce or its distribution does not coincide with demand peaks, it is then necessary to supply it artificially, by irrigation. Several irrigation methods are available, and the selection of one depends on factors such as water availability, crop, soil characteristics, land topography, and associated cost. Proper design of an irrigation system requires that the pumping system precisely match the irrigation distribution system so that the pressure and flow rate required can be efficiently provided by the pumping system. The energy required to pump water is determined by the total dynamic head (water lift, pipe friction, system pressure, etc.), the water flow rate desired,and the pumping system's efficiency. Irrigation water management involves determining when to irrigate, the amount of water to supply each irrigation event and during each stage of plant, and operating and maintaining the irrigation system. The main management objective is to manage the production system for profit without compromising environment and in agreement with water availability. A major management activity involves irrigation scheduling or determining when and how much water to apply, considering the irrigation method and other field characteristics.
FUNCTIONS OF FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
The primary function of farm irrigation systems is to supply crops with irrigation water in the quantities and at the time it is needed. Specific functions includes:
1. Diverting water from the water source.
2. Conveying it to individual fields within the farm.
3. Distributing it within each field.
4. Providing a means for measuring and regulating flows. Other functions of farm irrigation system include crop and soil cooling, protecting crops from frost damage, delaying fruit and bud development, and controlling wind erosion, providing water for seed germination, application of chemicals, and land application of wastes.
REASONS FOR AN IRRIGATION PLAN
• A project plan enables the designer to lay out the irrigation system in the most cost effective way. The plan is used to generate a material list and to evaluate the anticipated project costs.
• The plan provides step by step information on system installation. Information on crop spacing, sprinklers, pumping requirements, pipeline sizes and lengths should be included in the plan. Pertinent obstructions such as roads, trees, gas, oil, water, telephone, or transmission lines must also be indicated.
• Specification, design standards, and work schedules as set out in a plan on the basis of any contractual agreements between the installation contractor and the farmer.
• The plan provides a record for future reference. It can be used for overall farm planning and identifies limits of expansion potential.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A PLAN
• Topographic Data - The field shape must be accurately drawn showing pertinent obstructions, features and elevation details.
• Water Source Capacity - The water supply must be clearly indicated showing location and available capacity.
• Depending on the water source, a well log or water license must accompany the irrigation plan. Irrigation reservoirs also require Water Management Branch licensing.
• Soil and Crop Characteristics - Soil and crop limitations must be accounted for to reduce runoff and deep percolation by mismanagement of the irrigation system.
• Design Parameters - Soil water holding capacity, maximum application rate and climatic data must be used to select the correct irrigation system design.
• Design Data - The nozzle selected, operating pressure, discharge rate and sprinkler spacing must all be shown on the plan. The irrigation interval, set time, application rate and net amount applied must also be calculated.
WHERE TO OBTAIN A PLAN
A farm irrigation plan can be obtained from irrigation engineering consultants as well as reputable irrigation equipment dealers. The features of a farm irrigation plan are summarized in the sample ―Sprinkler Irrigation Design Information‖ sheets attached. A sample of an irrigation design plan is also included.
Information Sheet 2.2
Different Designs of Irrigation Systems
1. SURFACE IRRIGATION- Water is applied to the field in either the controlled or uncontrolled manner.
1.1 FURROW IRRIGATION
Only a part of the land surface (the furrow) is wetted thus minimizing evaporation loss.
1.1 FURROW IRRIGATION
Only a part of the land surface (the furrow) is wetted thus minimizing evaporation loss.
1.2. BOARDER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
1. In a border irrigation, controlled surface flooding is practiced whereby the field is divided into strips by parallel ridges or dikes and each strip is irrigated separately by introducing water upstream and it progressively covers the entire strip. 2. Border irrigation is suited to crops that can withstand flooding for a short time e.g. wheat. 3. It can be used for all crops provided that the system is designed to provide the needed water control for irrigation of crops. 4. It is suited to soil between extremely high and very low infiltration rates. 5. In border irrigation, water is applied slowly. 6. The root zone is applied water gradually down the field. 7. At a time, the application flow is cut-off to reduce water loses. 8. Ideally, there is no runoff and deep percolation. 9. The problem is that the time to cut off the inflow is difficult to determine. |
Design Parameters of Border Irrigation System
a) Strip width: Cross slopes must be eliminated by leveling. Since there are no furrows to restrict lateral movement, any cross slope will make water move down one side leading to poor application efficiency and possibly erosion.
- The stream size available should also be considered in choosing a strip width.
- The size should be enough to allow complete lateral spreading throughout the length of the strip.
- The width of the strip for a given water supply is a function of the length (T
- The strip width should be at least bigger than the size of vehicle tract for construction where applicable.
b) Strip Slope: Longitudinal slopes should be almost the same as for the furrow irrigation.
c) Construction of Levees: Levees should be big enough to withstand erosion, and of sufficient height to contain the irrigation stream.
d) Selection of the Advance Stream: The maximum advance stream used should be non-erosive and therefore depends on the protection afforded by the crop cover. Clay soils are less susceptible to erosion but suffer surface panning at high water velocities.
Table 3.4 gives the maximum flows recommendable for bare soils.
e) The Length of the Strip: Typical lengths and widths for various flows are given in Table 3.5. The ideal lengths can be obtained by field tests.
1.3. Basin Irrigation System
In basin irrigation, water is flooded in wider areas. It is ideal for irrigating rice.
- The area is normally flat.
- In basin irrigation, a very high stream size is introduced into the basin so that rapid movement of water is obtained.
- Water does not infiltrate a lot initially.
- At the end, a bond is put and water can pond the field.
- The opportunity time difference between the upward and the downward ends are reduced.
Note: The size of basin for clays is 10 times that of sand as the infiltration rate for clay is low leading to higher irrigation time. The size of basin also increases as the flow rate increases. The table is only a guide and practical values from an area should be relied upon. There is the need for field evaluation.
Time-Distance Graph of the Basin System
2. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
The sprinkler system is ideal in areas where water is scarce. A Sprinkler system conveys water through pipes and applies it with a minimum amount of losses. -Water is applied in the form of sprays sometimes simulating natural rainfall. -The difference is that this rainfall can be controlled in duration and intensity. -If well planned, designed, and operated, it can be used in sloping land to reduce erosion where other systems are not possible.
Components of a Sprinkler Irrigation System
The sprinkler system is ideal in areas where water is scarce. A Sprinkler system conveys water through pipes and applies it with a minimum amount of losses. -Water is applied in the form of sprays sometimes simulating natural rainfall. -The difference is that this rainfall can be controlled in duration and intensity. -If well planned, designed, and operated, it can be used in sloping land to reduce erosion where other systems are not possible.
Components of a Sprinkler Irrigation System
a) Fully portable system: The laterals, mains, sub-mains, and the pumping plant are all portable. The system is designed to be moved from one field to another or other pumping sites that are in the same field.
b) Semi-portable system: Water source and pumping plant are fixed in location. Other components can be moved. The system cannot be moved from field to field or from farm to farm except when more than one fixed pumping plant is used. c) Fully permanent system: Laterals, mains, sub-mains as well as fixed pumping plant are permanently located. Sometimes laterals and mainlines may be buried. The sprinkler may be permanently located or moved along the lateral. It can be used on permanent irrigation fields and for relatively high value crops e.g. Orchards and vineyards. |
Labor savings throughout the life of the system may later offset high installation cost.
3. DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
ADVANTAGES:
1. Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field is not wetted.
2. Water is conserved
3. Weeds are controlled because only the places getting water can grow weeds.
4. There is a low pressure system.
5. There is a slow rate of water application somewhat matching the consumptive use. Application rate can be as low as 1 - 12 l/hr.
6. There is reduced evaporation, only potential transpiration is considered.
7. There is no need for a drainage system.
Labor savings throughout the life of the system may later offset high installation cost.
3. DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
ADVANTAGES:
1. Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field is not wetted.
2. Water is conserved
3. Weeds are controlled because only the places getting water can grow weeds.
4. There is a low pressure system.
5. There is a slow rate of water application somewhat matching the consumptive use. Application rate can be as low as 1 - 12 l/hr.
6. There is reduced evaporation, only potential transpiration is considered.
7. There is no need for a drainage system.